Renewable energy
Courtesy : en.wikipedia.org/
Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources that are naturally replenished on a human timescale. It includes sources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat Although most renewable energy sources are sustainable, some are not. For example, some biomass sources are considered unsustainable at current rates of exploitation.[4][5] Renewable energy often provides energy for electricity generation to a grid, air and water heating/cooling, and stand-alone power systems. About 20% of humans’ global energy consumption is renewables, including almost 30% of electricity.[6] About 7% of energy consumption is traditional biomass, but this is declining.[7] Over 4% of energy consumption is heat energy from modern renewables, such as solar water heating, and over 6% electricity.
Globally there are over 10 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries, with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer.[9] Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper and their share of total energy consumption is increasing,[10] with a large majority of worldwide newly installed electricity capacity being renewable.[11] In most countries, photovoltaic solar or onshore wind are the cheapest new-build electricity.
Many nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of their total energy supply, with some generating over half their electricity from renewables.[13] A few countries generate all their electricity using renewable energy.[14] National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the 2020s and beyond.[15] Studies have shown that a global transition to 100% renewable energy across all sectors – power, heat, transport and desalination – is feasible and economically viable.[16][17][18] Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to fossil fuels, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits.[19] However renewables are being hindered by hundreds of billions of dollars of fossil fuel subsidies.[20] In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for renewables such as solar power and wind power.[21][22] But the International Energy Agency said in 2021 that to reach net zero carbon emissions more effort is needed to increase renewables, and called for generation to increase by about 12% a year to 2030.[6]
Renewable energy technology projects are typically large-scale, but they are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial in human development.[23][24] As most of the renewable energy technologies provide electricity, renewable energy is often deployed together with further electrification, which has several benefits: electricity can move heat or objects efficiently, and is clean at the point of consumption.[25][26] In addition, electrification with renewable energy is more efficient and therefore leads to significant reductions in primary energy requirements.[27] In 2021, China accounted for almost half of the increase in renewable electricity.[28] In 2021, Norway, known for its production of hydroelectricity, consumed hydro energy worth 45% of its total energy supply.[29]
Overview
See also: Outline of solar energy and Lists of renewable energy topics
Coal, oil, and natural gas remain the primary global energy sources even as renewables have begun rapidly increasing.[30]
PlanetSolar, the world’s largest solar-powered boat and the first ever solar electric vehicle to circumnavigate the globe (in 2012)
Definition
See also: Sustainable energy
Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides, plant growth, and geothermal heat, as the International Energy Agency explains:
Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.
Drivers and benefits
Renewable energy stands in contrast to fossil fuels, which are being used far more quickly than they are being replenished. Renewable energy resources and significant opportunities for energy efficiency exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and economic benefits.[19] Solar and wind power have got much cheaper.[32] In some cases it will be cheaper to transition to these sources as opposed to continuing to use the current, inefficient, fossil fuels. It would also reduce environmental pollution such as air pollution caused by the burning of fossil fuels, and improve public health, reduce premature mortalities due to pollution and save associated health costs that could amount to trillions of dollars annually.[33][34] Multiple analyses of decarbonization strategies have found that quantified health benefits can significantly offset the costs of implementing these strategies.[35][36]
Climate change concerns, coupled with the continuing fall in the costs of some renewable energy equipment, such as wind turbines and solar panels, are driving increased use of renewables.[21] New government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather the global financial crisis better than many other sectors.[37] As of 2019, however, according to the International Renewable Energy Agency, renewables overall share in the energy mix (including power, heat and transport) needs to grow six times faster, in order to keep the rise in average global temperatures “well below” 2.0 °C (3.6 °F) during the present century, compared to pre-industrial levels.[38]
Scale
Main article: Renewable energy § Market and industry trends
Main article: Renewable energy commercialization
A household’s solar panels, and batteries if they have them, can often either be used for just that household or if connected to an electrical grid can be aggregated with millions of others.[39] Over 44 million households use biogas made in household-scale digesters for lighting and/or cooking, and more than 166 million households rely on a new generation of more-efficient biomass cookstoves.[40][needs update] United Nations’ eighth Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity.[41] At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply.[42] Although many countries have various policy targets for longer-term shares of renewable energy these tend to be only for the power sector,[43] including a 40% target of all electricity generated for the European Union by 2030.[44]
Uses
Renewable energy often displaces conventional fuels in four areas: electricity generation, hot water/space heating, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.[45]
Power generation
More than a quarter of electricity is generated from renewables as of 2021.[46]
Heating and cooling
Solar water heating makes an important contribution to renewable heat in many countries, most notably in China, which now has 70% of the global total (180 GWth). Most of these systems are installed on multi-family apartment buildings[47] and meet a portion of the hot water needs of an estimated 50–60 million households in China. Worldwide, total installed solar water heating systems meet a portion of the water heating needs of over 70 million households. In Sweden, national use of biomass energy has surpassed that of oil. Heat pumps provide both heating and cooling, and also flatten the electric demand curve and are thus an increasing priority[48][49] Renewable thermal energy is also growing rapidly.[50] About 10% of heating and cooling energy is from renewables.[46]
Transportation
A bus fueled by biodiesel
One of the efforts to decarbonize transportation is the increased use of electric vehicles (EVs).[51] Despite that and the use of biofuels, such as biojet, less than 4% of transport energy is from renewables.[7] Occasionally hydrogen fuel cells are used for heavy transport.[52]
Mainstream technologies
Solar energy
Main articles: Solar energy and Solar power
Satellite image of the Bhadla Solar Park in India, it is the largest Solar Park in the world
Global map of horizontal irradiation.[53]
| Global electricity power generation capacity | 849 GW (2021)[54] |
| Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate | 26% (2012-2021)[55] |
| Share of global electricity generation | 2% (2018)[56] |
| Levelized cost per megawatt hour | Utility-scale photovoltaics: USD 38.343 (2019)[57] |
| Primary technologies | Photovoltaics, concentrated solar power, solar thermal collector |
| Other energy applications | Water heating; heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC); cooking; process heat; water treatment |
Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, concentrated solar power (CSP), concentrator photovoltaics (CPV), solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis.[58][59] Most new renewable energy is solar.[60] Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert, and distribute solar energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. Active solar technologies encompass solar thermal energy, using solar collectors for heating, and solar power, converting sunlight into electricity either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP).
A photovoltaic system converts light into electrical direct current (DC) by taking advantage of the photoelectric effect.[61] Solar PV has turned into a multi-billion, fast-growing industry, continues to improve its cost-effectiveness, and has the most potential of any renewable technologies together with CSP.[62][63] Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. CSP-Stirling has by far the highest efficiency among all solar energy technologies.
In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that “the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared”.[58] Solar power accounts for 505 GW annually, which is about 2% of the world’s electricity. Solar energy can be harnessed anywhere that receives sunlight; however, the amount of solar energy that can be harnessed for electricity generation is influenced by weather conditions, geographic location and time of day.[64] According to chapter 6 of the IPCC 2022 climate mitigation report, the global potential of direct solar energy far exceeds that of any other renewable energy resource. It is well beyond the total amount of energy needed in order to support mitigation over the current century.[65] Australia has the largest proportion of solar electricity in the world, supplying 9.9% of the country’s electrical demand in 2020.[66]
Wind power
Main article: Wind power
Wind energy generation by region over time.[67]
Global map of wind power density potential.[68]
| Global electricity power generation capacity | 825 GW (2021) |
| Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate | 13% (2012-2021)[70] |
| Share of global electricity generation | 5% (2018)[56] |
| Levelized cost per megawatt hour | Land-based wind: USD 30.165 (2019)[71] |
| Primary technology | Wind turbine |
| Other energy applications | Windmill, windpump |
Air flow can be used to run wind turbines. Modern utility-scale wind turbines range from around 600 kW to 9 MW of rated power. The power available from the wind is a function of the cube of the wind speed, so as wind speed increases, power output increases up to the maximum output for the particular turbine.[72] Areas where winds are stronger and more constant, such as offshore and high-altitude sites, are preferred locations for wind farms. Typically, full load hours of wind turbines vary between 16 and 57 percent annually but might be higher in particularly favorable offshore sites.[73]
Wind-generated electricity met nearly 4% of global electricity demand in 2015, with nearly 63 GW of new wind power capacity installed. Wind energy was the leading source of new capacity in Europe, the US and Canada, and the second largest in China. In Denmark, wind energy met more than 40% of its electricity demand while Ireland, Portugal and Spain each met nearly 20%.[74]
Globally, the long-term technical potential of wind energy is believed to be five times total current global energy production, or 40 times current electricity demand, assuming all practical barriers needed were overcome. This would require wind turbines to be installed over large areas, particularly in areas of higher wind resources, such as offshore. As offshore wind speeds average ~90% greater than that of land, so offshore resources can contribute substantially more energy than land-stationed turbines.[75]
Hydropower
Main articles: Hydroelectricity and Hydropower
The Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China
| Global electricity power generation capacity | 1,230 GW (2021)[76] |
| Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate | 2.5% (2012-2021)[77] |
| Share of global electricity generation | 16% (2018)[56] |
| Levelized cost per megawatt hour | USD 65.581 (2019)[78] |
| Primary technology | Dam |
| Other energy applications | Pumped storage, mechanical power |
Since water is about 800 times denser than air, even a slow flowing stream of water, or moderate sea swell, can yield considerable amounts of energy. There are many forms of water energy:
- Historically, hydroelectric power came from constructing large hydroelectric dams and reservoirs, which are still popular in developing countries.[79] The largest of them are the Three Gorges Dam (2003) in China and the Itaipu Dam (1984) built by Brazil and Paraguay.
- Small hydro systems are hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to 50 MW of power. They are often used on small rivers or as a low-impact development on larger rivers. China is the largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world and has more than 45,000 small hydro installations.[80]
- Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity plants derive energy from rivers without the creation of a large reservoir. The water is typically conveyed along the side of the river valley (using channels, pipes and/or tunnels) until it is high above the valley floor, whereupon it can be allowed to fall through a penstock to drive a turbine. A run-of-river plant may still produce a large amount of electricity, such as the Chief Joseph Dam on the Columbia River in the United States.[81] However many run-of-the-river hydro power plants are micro hydro or pico hydro plants.
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010.[needs update] Of the top 50 countries by percentage of electricity generated from renewables, 46 are primarily hydroelectric.[82] There are now three hydroelectricity stations larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu Dam across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guri Dam in Venezuela.[83] Much hydropower is flexible, thus complementing wind and solar.[84]
Wave power, which captures the energy of ocean surface waves, and tidal power, converting the energy of tides, are two forms of hydropower with future potential; however, they are not yet widely employed commercially.[85] A demonstration project operated by the Ocean Renewable Power Company on the coast of Maine, and connected to the grid, harnesses tidal power from the Bay of Fundy, location of the world’s highest tidal flow. Ocean thermal energy conversion, which uses the temperature difference between cooler deep and warmer surface waters, currently has no economic feasibility.[86][87]